Zaparoan (also Sáparoan, Záparo, Zaparoano, Zaparoana) is an endangered language family of Peru and Ecuador with fewer than 100 speakers. Zaparoan speakers seem to have been very numerous before the arrival of the Europeans. However, their groups have been decimated by imported diseases and warfare, and only a handful of them have survived.

Languages There were 39 Zaparoan-speaking tribes at the beginning of the 20th century,La famille linguistique Zaparo, H. Beuchat and P. Rivet – Journal de la société des américanistes – Année 1908 lien Volume 5 pp. 235–249 every one of them presumably using its own distinctive language or dialect. Most of them have become extinct before being recorded, however, and we have information only about nine of them.

Zaparoan Zaparo group Záparo–Conambo Záparo (5 speakers left) Conambo Arabela–Andoa Arabela (50 speakers) Andoa Iquito–Cahuarano Iquito (35 speakers) Cahuarano Unclassified Aushiri ? Omurano

Aushiri and Omurano are included by Stark (1985). Aushiri is generally accepted as Zaparoan, but Omurano remains unclassified or even as a language isolate in other descriptions.

Mason (1950) Internal classification of the Zaparoan languages by Mason (1950):

Zaparoan Coronado group Coronado (Ipapiza, Hichachapa, Kilinina) Tarokeo Chudavina (?) Miscuara (?) Oa (Oaki, Deguaca, Santa Rosina) Andoa group Andoa Guallpayo Guasaga Murato Gae (Siaviri) Semigae Aracohor Mocosiohor Usicohor Ichocomohor Itoromohor Maithiore Comacor (?) Iquito (Amacacora, Kiturran, Puca-Uma) Iquito Maracana (Cawarano ?) Auve Asaruntoa (?) Záparo group Muegano Curaray Matagen Yasuni Manta Nushino Rotuno Supinu

Genetic relations The relationship of Zaparoan languages with other language families of the area is uncertain. It is generally considered isolated. Links with other languages or families have been proposed but none has been widely accepted so far.

Payne (1984) and Kaufman (1994) suggest a relationship with the Yaguan family in a Sáparo–Yáwan stock, contrary to Greenberg's (1987) classification. Swadesh (1954) also groups Zaparoan with Yaguan within his Zaparo–Peba phylum. Greenberg (1987) places Zaparoan together with the Cahuapanan family into a Kahuapana–Zaparo grouping within his larger Andean phylum, but this is generally rejected by historical linguists. Kaufman (1994) notes that Tovar (1984) includes the unclassified Taushiro under Zaparoan following the tentative opinion of SSILA. Stark (1985) includes the extinct Omurano under Zaparoan. Gordon (2005) follows Stark. Mason (1950: 236–238) groups Bora–Witoto, Tupian, and Zaparoan together as part of a proposed Macro-Tupí-Guaranían family.

Language contact Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Omurano, Arawakan, Quechuan, and Peba-Yagua language families due to contact.

Family features Pronouns

Zaparoan languages distinguish between inclusive and exclusive we and consider the first person singular as the default person. A rare feature is the existence of two sets of personal pronouns with different syntactic values according to the nature of the sentence. Active pronouns are subject in independent clauses and object in dependent ones, while passive pronouns are subject in independent clauses and passive in dependent ones :

Thus

(Arabela) Cuno maaji cua masuu-nuju-quiaa na mashaca cua ratu-nu-ra. (this woman is always inviting me to drink masato where cua is object in the main clause and subject in the subordinate one. (Záparo) (you will fall) cp (I don't want to go with you)

+ Personal pronouns in Zaparoan languages Zaparo Arabela Iquito Conambo 1stperson ko / kwi / k- janiya / -nijia / cuacuo- / cu- / qui cu / quí / quíija kwiɣia / ku kana /kaʔno canaa cana / canáaja pa /p- pajaniya / paa / pa / po-pue- / -pue p'++ja 2ndperson tʃa / tʃ- / k-/ ki quiajaniya / quiaa / quia / quio--quia / cero quia / quiáaja kyaχa kina / kiʔno niajaniya / niaa / nia / nio- 3rdperson naw / no / n-ˑ nojuaja / na / ne- / no--Vri / -quinio anúu / anúuja na nojori / na / no- naá / nahuaáca

Numerals    Gloss    Zaparoan languages Zaparo Andoa Arabela Iquito 1 nuquaqui nikínjo niquiriyatu núquiica 2 namisciniqui ishki caapiqui cuúmi 3 haimuckumarachi kímsa jiuujianaraca s++saramaj+táami 4 ckaramaitacka

Proto-language

Proto-Záparoan reconstructions by de Carvalho (2013):de Carvalho, F. O. (2013). On Záparoan as a valid genetic unity: Preliminary correspondences and the status of Omurano. In Revista Brasileira de Linguística Antropológica. Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 91-116. Accessed from DiACL, 9 February 2020.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 85%" ! gloss !! Proto-Záparoan |- | ‘bee, wasp’ || *ahapaka |- | ‘stick’ || *amaka |- | ‘to kill’ || *amo |- | ‘woman's sibling’ || *ana- |- | ‘cloud, smoke’ || *anahaka |- | ‘head’ || *anaka |- | ‘pain’ || *anaw |- | ‘to come’ || *ani- |- | ‘to cut down’ || *anu- |- | ‘to talk’ || *ati- |- | ‘to eat’ || *atsa- |- | ‘tooth’ || *ika- |- | ‘to go’ || *ikwa- |- | ‘foot’ || *ino- |- | ‘benefactive’ || *-iɾa |- | ‘fat, large (for fruits)’ || *iɾisi |- | ‘house’ || *ita |- | ‘urine’ || *isa- |- | ‘negative nominalization’ || *-jaw |- | ‘number suffix’ || *-ka |- | ‘hair; feather’ || *kaha- |- | ‘1st person, excl. plural’ || *kana |- | ‘to cut (hair)’ || *kə- |- | ‘raw’ || *maha |- | ‘to cook’ || *mahi |- | ‘to sleep’ || *makə- |- | ‘guts’ || *mara |- | ‘to tie’ || *maraw- |- | ‘to escape, to flee’ || *masi- |- | ‘to do’ || *mi- |- | ‘rotten’ || *moka |- | ‘3rd person plural’ || *na- |- | ‘hill’ || *naku- |- | ‘blood’ || *nana-ka |- | ‘3rd person singular’ || *naw- |- | ‘masculine, singular’ || *-nu |- | ‘infinitive’ || *-nu |- | ‘to want/like; love’ || *pani- |- | ‘fish; stingray?’ || *sapi |- | ‘to taste (food)’ || *sani- |- | ‘lice’ || *sukana |- | ‘bad’ || *səsa |- | ‘to lick’ || *tamə- |- | ‘foreigner, stranger; to hate?’ || *tawə- |- | ‘to listen’ || *tawhi- |- | ‘feminine, singular’ || *-tu |- | ‘causative suffix’ || *-tə |- | ‘where’ || *tə- |- | ‘to rest; to be new’ || *tsami- |- | ‘rain’ || *umaru

Citations

General and cited references Adelaar, Willem F. H.; & Muysken, Pieter C. (2004). The languages of the Andes. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge University Press. Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. . Greenberg, Joseph H. (1987). Language in the Americas. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). "Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more". In D. L. Payne (ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. . Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). "The native languages of South America". In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (eds.), Atlas of the World's Languages (pp. 46–76). London: Routledge. Payne, Doris (1984). "Evidence for a Yaguan-Zaparoan Connection". In D. Derbyshire (ed.), SIL working papers: University of North Dakota session (Vol. 28; pp. 131–156). Stark, Louisa R. (1985). "Indigenous languages of lowland Ecuador: History and current status". In H. E. M. Klein & L. R. Stark (eds.), South American Indian languages: Retrospect and prospect (pp. 157–193). Austin: University of Texas Press. Suárez, Jorge. (1974). "South American Indian languages". In Encyclopædia Britannica (15th ed., Vol. 17, pp. 105–112). Swadesh, Morris. (1959). Mapas de clasificación lingüística de México y las Américas. México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Tovar, Antonio; & Larrucea de Tovar, Consuelo (1984). Catálogo de las lenguas de América de Sur (new edition). Madrid: Gredos.

External links

Proel: Familia Zaparoana Zaparo’s lost secrets Museum and Virtual Library (Museums of Central Bank of Ecuador) (English)