The Chinese monarchs were the rulers of China during Ancient and Imperial periods. The earliest rulers in traditional Chinese historiography are of mythological origin, and followed by the Xia dynasty of highly uncertain and contested historicity. During the subsequent Shang () and Zhou (1046–256 BCE) dynasties, rulers were referred to as Wang , meaning king. China was fully united for the first time by Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BCE), who established the first Imperial dynasty, adopting the title Huangdi (), meaning Emperor, which remained in use until the Imperial system's fall in 1912.
At no point during Ancient or Imperial China was there a formalized means to confer legitimate succession between rulers. From the Zhou dynasty onwards, monarchs justified their reigns by claiming the Mandate of Heaven (; Tiānmìng). The mandate held that a ruler and their successors had permission from the heavens to rule as long as they did so effectively. It also declared a ruler the Son of Heaven (; Tiānzǐ), giving them the right to rule "all under heaven" (; Tiānxià). Given the Mandate's subjective nature, rulers also utilized a variety of methods to retain support and justify their accession. This ranged from military enforcement, political patronage, establishing peace and solidity, institutional reform, and historical revisionism to legitimize the dissolution of previous dynasties and their own succession. For most of Imperial China, the wuxing (; "Five Elements") philosophical scheme was also central to justify dynastic succession.
Most Chinese monarchs had many names. They were given a personal name (; Míngzi) at birth, but later referred to by a posthumous name (; Shìhào)—which memorialized their accomplishments or character—due to a cultural naming taboo. Most emperors of the Imperial period also received a temple name (; Miàohào), used to venerate them in ancestor worship. From the rule of Emperor Wu of Han (141–87 BCE) onwards, emperors also adopted one or several era names (; Niánhào), or "reign mottos", to divide their rule by important events or accomplishments. Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) rulers are referred to solely by their era names, of which they only had one.
Apart from ethnic Han rulers, China was also ruled by various non-Han monarchs, including Jurchen, Khitan, Manchu, Mongol and Tangut and many others. To justify their reign, non-Han rulers sometimes aligned themselves with the Confucian sages or the Chakravarti of Chinese Buddhism. There are numerous lengthy periods where many competing kingdoms claimed the throne, many of whose legitimacy are still debated by scholars.
Ancient China Mythological rulers
In traditional Chinese historiography, various models of mythological founding rulers exist. The relevancy of these figures to the earliest Chinese people is unknown, since most accounts of them were written from the Warring States period ( BCE) onwards. The sinologist Kwang-chih Chang has generalized the typical stages: "the first period was populated by gods, the second by demigods/culture hero, and the third by the legendary kings." The primordial god Pangu is given by many texts as the earliest figure and is credited with forming the world by separating heaven and earth. Other gods include Nüwa, who repaired heaven; Hou Yi, a mythical archer; and Gonggong, a serpent-like water deity.
Demigod and hero rulers from hero myths—the largest group Chinese myths—are attributed the invention of specific items, practices or traditions. Among the more important of them are Fuxi, the inventor of hunting; Suiren, who invented fire; and Shennong, who invented both agriculture and medicine. The subsequent legendary kings began with the Yellow Emperor (), known as Huangdi, a major culture hero of Chinese civilization whose reign was considered exemplary. Succeeding rulers include some combination of Shaohao, Zhuanxu, Emperor Ku, Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun. Since the late Warring States onwards, early Chinese monarchs have traditionally been ground into the concept of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors; however, the chosen figures of this grouping varies considerably between sources. Generally, most accounts include at least Fuxi and Shennong among the Three Sovereigns as well as the Yellow Emperor, Yao and Shun among the Five Emperors.
Xia dynasty
The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period was followed by the Xia dynasty in traditional historiography. Founded by Yu the Great, both the dynasty and its rulers are of highly uncertain and controversial historicity.
+ Xia dynasty (夏朝) Name Speculative reign length Traditional succession Capital Purported life details Yu 45 7 Chosen by the mythical Emperor Shun Ji Awarded the throne after his institution of flood control. He is often known as "Yu the Great" and his passing of the throne to his son marked the beginning of China's hereditary succession Qi 10 8 Son of Yu Xiayi Prevented a rebellion led by his son Wuguan (Tai) Kang 29 28 Son of Qi Zhenxun Traditionally considered an ineffective king, either due to tyranny or incompetence. May have been briefly dethroned by the mythical hero Han Zhuo and later murdered by Han's son Ao (Zhong) Kang () 13 13 Son of Qi Zhenxun May not have ruled as his existence is sometimes absent from Xia king lists Xiang 28 28 Son of (Zhong) Kang Shang, then Zhenxun Killed by a son of Han Zhuo Interregnum, ruled by Han Zhuo (Shao) Kang 21 21 Son of Xiang Yuan Restored the dynasty after killing Han Zhuo and his sons Zhu 17 16 Son of (Shao) Kang Yuan, then Laoqiu Little is known of his reign Huai 26 25 Son of Zhu – Little is known of his reign; may have ruled up to 40 years Mang 18 17 Son of Huai – Little is known of his reign Xie 16 15 Son of Mang – Little is known of his reign (Bu) Jiang 59 58 Son of Xie – Little is known of his reign; campaigned against the northwestern peoples Jiong 21 20 Son of Xie – Little is known of his reign Jin 21 20 Son of Jiong Xihe Little is known of his reign Kong Jia 31 30 Son of (Bu) Jiang Xihe His reign inaugurated the Xia's gradual decline Gao 11 10 Son of Kong Jia – Little is known of his reign Fa 11 20? Son of Gao – May have only reigned 7 years. His reign saw the earliest recorded earthquake, identified with the Mount Tai earthquake. Jie 52 52 Son of Fa Zhenxun, then Henan Traditionally considered a cruel and oppressive ruler. Fled the empire after losing the Battle of Mingtiao to the state of Shang
Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE)
Unlike the Xia, the Shang dynasty's historicity is firmly established, due to written records on divination objects known as Oracle bones. The oldest such oracle bones date to the Late Shang (), during the reign of Wu Ding (1250–1192), putting the exact details of earlier rulers into doubt.
+ Shang dynasty (商朝; c. 1600–1046/c. 1570—1045 BCE) Posthumous name Personal name Tentative reign (BCE) Traditional succession Residence Purported life details XSZ Project Early Shang Tang Da Yi Zi Lü Defeated the purportedly tyrannous Jie of Xia at the Battle of Mingtiao and established the Shang dynasty Bo, then Shangyi Traditionally considered a noble and virtuous ruler Da Ding () Tai Ding () unknown – – Son of Tang – Uncertain whether he was ever enthroned; may have died before succeeding his father Wai Bing Zi Sheng — — Son of Tang Bo — Zhong Ren () Zi Yong — — Son of Tang Bo Not listed in the oracle bones inscriptions Tai Jia Zi Zhi — — Son of Da Ding Bo Traditionally considered an autocratic and cruel ruler Wo Ding () Qiang Ding Zi Xuan — — Son of Tai Jia Bo His name is not found in oracle bone inscriptions, making his certainty as a ruler less secure. Tai Geng Da Geng Zi Bian — — Son of Tai Jia Bo – Xiao Jia Zi Gao — — Son of Tai Geng Bo – Yong Ji Zi Zhou — — Son of Tai Geng Bo May have reigned after Tai Wu Tai Wu Da Wu Zi Mi — — Son of Tai Geng Bo Said to have had a particularly long reign; one source records 75 years. The astronomer Wuxian was active under him Zhong Ding Zi Zhung — — Son of Tai Wu Ao May have succeeded Yong Ji Wai Ren Zi Fā — — Son of Tai Wu Ao – He Dan Jia Zi Zheng — — Son of Tai Wu Xiang Moved the capital to Xiang () and engaged in military campaigns Zu Yi Zi Teng — — Son of Zhong Ding Geng The dynasty flourished particularly during his reign Zu Xin Zi Dan — — Son of Zu Yi Bi – Wo Jia Qiang Jia Zi Yu — — Son of Zu Yi Bi – Zu Ding Zi Xin — — Son of Zu Xin Bi – Nan Geng Zi Geng — — Son of Wo Jia Bi, then Yan Moved the capital from Bi () to Yan () Yang Jia Zi He — — Son of Zu Ding Yan His reign marked the decline of the Shang Pan Geng Zi Xun 1300–1251( years) — Son of Zu Ding Yan, then Yin Traditionally said to have moved the dynasty's capital from Yan () to Yin () Led a prosperous reign Xiao Xin Zi Song — Son of Zu Ding Yin His reign saw the continuation of the Shang's decline Xiao Yi Zi Lian — Son of Zu Ding Yin –Late Shang Wu Ding Zi Zhao 1250–1192( years) ?–1189 Son of Xiao Yi Yin A powerful king with a lengthy reign. Made his wife Fu Hao a general and purportedly defeated the mostly-unknown Guifang people. The first ruler whose name is included in oracle bones which date to his reign. Zu Geng Zi Yue 1191–1148( years) 1188–1178( years) Son of Wu Ding Yin Possibly commissioned the Houmuwu ding in memory of his mother Fu Jing Zu Jia Zi Zai 1177–1158( years) Son of Wu Ding Yin Reformed the ritual and calendar systems, as recording in the Book of Documents Lin Xin () Zi Xian 1157–1149( years) Son of Zu Jia Yin Due to inconsistencies in the oracle bone inscriptions, it is possible he did not reign. Geng Ding Kang Ding Zi Xiao 1148–1132( years) Son of Zu Jia Yin His reign accelerated the dynasty's decline Wu Yi Zi Qu 1147–1131( years) 1131–1117( years) Son of Geng Ding Yin, Hebei, then Mo Engaged in numerous military campaigns, including against the state of Yiqu. Traditionally held to have been killed by a lightning strike, considered a bad omen Wen Wu Ding Wen Ding Zi Tuo 1112–1102( years) 1116–1106( years) Son of Wu Yi Yin The Predynastic Zhou rose in power during his reign, led by Ji, King of Zhou Di Yi Zi Xian 1101–1076( years) 1105–1087( years) Son of Wen Wu Ding Yin Supposedly married his daughter to King Wen of Zhou, or married his sister to Ji, King of Zhou Di Xin Zi Shou 1075–1046( years) 1086–1045( years) Son of Di Yi Yin Killed by Ji Fa during the Battle of Muye
Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE)