The politics of Turkey take place in the framework of a constitutional republic and presidential system, with various levels and branches of power.
Turkey's political system is based on a separation of powers. Executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers, which is appointed and headed by the President, who serves as country's head of state and head of government. Legislative power is vested in the Grand National Assembly. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Its current constitution was adopted on 7 November 1982 after a constitutional referendum.
Major constitutional revisions were passed by the National Assembly on 21 January 2017 and approved by referendum on 16 April 2017. The reforms, among other measures, abolished the position of Prime Minister and designated the President as both head of state and government, effectively transforming Turkey from a parliamentary regime into a presidential one.
Suffrage is universal for citizens 18 years of age and older.
National government
Turkey is a presidential representative democracy and a constitutional republic within a pluriform multi-party system, in which the president (the head of state and head of government), parliament, and judiciary share powers reserved to the national government.
The government is divided into three branches, as per the specific terms articulated in part three of the Turkish Constitution: Legislative: The unicameral Parliament makes law, debates and adopts the budget bills, declares war, approves treaties, proclaims amnesty and pardon, and has the power of impeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the government. Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto legislative bills before they become law (subject to parliamentary override), can issue presidential decrees on matters regarding executive power with exception of fundamental rights, individual rights and certain political rights (parliamentary laws prevail presidential decrees), and appoints the members of the Cabinet and other officers, who administer and enforce national laws and policies. Judicial: The Constitutional Court (for constitutional adjudication and review of individual applications concerning human rights), the Court of Cassation (final decision maker in ordinary judiciary), the Council of State (final decision maker in administrative judiciary) and the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes (for resolving the disputes between courts for constitutional jurisdiction) are the four organizations that are described by the Constitution as supreme courts. The judges of the Constitutional Court are appointed by the president and the parliament.
Legislative power is invested in the 600-seat Grand National Assembly of Turkey (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi), representing 81 provinces. The members are elected for a five-year term by mitigated proportional representation with an election threshold of 7%. To be represented in Parliament, a party must win at least 7% of the national vote in a national parliamentary election. Independent candidates may run, and to be elected, they must only win enough to get one seat.
The freedom and independence of the judicial system is protected within the constitution. There is no organization, person, or institution which can interfere in the running of the courts, and the executive and legislative structures must obey the courts' decisions. The courts, which are independent in discharging their duties, must explain each ruling on the basis of the provisions of the Constitution, the laws, jurisprudence, and their personal convictions.
The Judicial system is highly structured. Turkish courts have no jury system; judges render decisions after establishing the facts in each case based on evidence presented by lawyers and prosecutors. For minor civil complaints and offenses, justices of the peace take the case. This court has a single judge. It has jurisdiction over misdemeanors and petty crimes, with penalties ranging from small fines to brief prison sentences. Three-judge courts of first instance have jurisdiction over major civil suits and serious crimes. Any conviction in a criminal case can be taken to a court of Appeals for judicial review.
Administrative divisions
The political system of Turkey is highly centralized. However, as a member state of the Council of Europe, Turkey is under an obligation to implement the European Charter of Local Self-Government. In its 2011 report, the Monitoring Committee of the Council of Europe found fundamental deficits in implementation, in particular administrative tutelage and prohibition of the use of languages other than Turkish in the provision of public services.
Political principles of importance in Turkey
The Turkish Constitution is cumulatively built on the following principles: Kemalism (The Six Arrows) Republicanism Populism Nationalism Laicism Statism Reformism Modernization Westernization
Most mainstream political parties are alternatively built either on the following principles: Nationalism Turkish nationalism Kurdish nationalism Conservatism Kemalism Decentralization
Other political ideas have also influenced Turkish politics and modern history. Of particular importance are: Neoliberalism Pan-Turkism Socialism Communism Erdoğanism
These principles are the continuum around which various – and often rapidly changing – political parties and groups have campaigned (and sometimes fought). On a superficial level, the importance which state officials attach to these principles and their posts can be seen in their response to breaches of protocol in official ceremonies.
Political parties and elections Political parties
After World War II, Turkey started operating under a multi-party system.
On the center right to right side of the Turkish political spectrum, these parties have had large majorities:
Democrat Party (DP) (Formed in 1945, shut down after the 1960 coup d'état) Justice Party (AP) (Formed in 1961, shut down after the 1980 coup d'état) Motherland Party (ANAP) (Formed in 1983, stayed in power until 1991, was a sizeable party that sometimes was part of governing coalitions until 2002) Justice and Development Party (AK PARTY) (Formed in 2001, has been in power since 2002)
Some other parties that have had similar politics but never had large majorities are:
Democratic Party (DP) Republican Reliance Party (CGP) Nationalist Democracy Party (MDP) True Path Party (DYP) Good Party (İYİ PARTY)
Turkish right-wing parties are more likely to embrace principles of political ideologies such as conservatism, nationalism or Islamism.
On the far-right, there have been nationalist parties and Islamist parties:
Idealist parties Nationalist Movement Party (MHP) Nationalist Task Party (MÇP) Great Unity Party (BBP) Bright Turkey Party (ATP) National Path Party (MİLLİ YOL) Milli Görüş parties National Order Party (MNP) National Salvation Party (MSP) Welfare Party (RP) Virtue Party (FP) Felicity Party (SP) New Welfare Party (YRP) Victory Party (ZP)
On the center-left to left side of the spectrum, the following parties once enjoyed the largest electoral success, and are more likely to embrace principles of social democracy, Kemalism or secularism: Republican People's Party (CHP) Peoples' Equality and Democracy Party (DEM Party) Social Democratic Populist Party (SHP) Democratic Left Party (DSP)
On the far-left side, socialist and communist parties tend not to get large votes, but parties like the Workers' Party of Turkey (and the party with the same name founded in 2017) have been able to get elected representatives in the parliament.
Elections
Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of government: presidential elections (national), parliamentary elections (national), municipality mayors (local), district mayors (local), provincial or municipal council members (local) and muhtars (local).
Apart from elections, referendums are also held occasionally. To put forward a referendum regarding constitutional amendments, a supermajority (three fifths of the votes) in the parliament is required first. These kinds of referendums are binding.
In May 2023, President Erdogan won a new re-election and his AK Party with its allies held parliamentary majority in the general election.
Suffrage Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has the right to vote and stand as a candidate at elections. Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934.
According to the Constitution of the Ottoman Empire (1876), the age of candidacy was 30 and the voting age was 25. In the newly established Republic of Turkey, the voting age was reduced to 18 due to the decreasing population, and the age of candidacy was still 30. The voting age was increased to 22 in 1934, decreased to 21 in 1987, and 18 in 1995.
The age of candidacy dropped from 30 to 25 through a constitutional amendment in 2006. Following the 2017 constitutional referendum, it was further lowered to 18.
Financing Political parties can use donations, dues, real estate income and income from party activities to continue their activities. Since 1965, the Treasury also gives money to political parties. According to the law, parties that participated in the last parliamentary elections and that passed the general threshold are paid 0.04% of the general budget revenues each year. Apart from this, the parties that received more than 3 percent of the votes despite being below the threshold are also given public funding in proportion of support. This amount triples in election years.
Political parties can't receive aid or donations in kind or in cash from foreign states, international organizations and entities not of Turkish nationality. The same rule applies for candidates in presidential elections. Anonymous donations to political parties are also not allowed. It should be clearly stated in the receipt given by the party that the donation belong to the donor or the donor's authorized representative or attorney. Donations by political parties cannot be accepted without relying on such a document. Donations from domestic corporations with (partial) government ownership are also not allowed.
According to article 74 of the Political Parties Law, the financial control of political parties is carried out by the Constitutional Court. The Constitutional Court supervises the compliance of the property acquisitions, income and expenses of political parties with the Law. Presidents of political parties are obliged to submit a certified copy of the final account and the final accounts of the local organizations, including the party headquarters and its affiliated districts, to the Constitutional Court and to the Office of the Chief Public Prosecutor of the Supreme Court for information, until the end of June.
Military involvement in politics
Since Mustafa Kemal Atatürk founded the modern secular Republic of Turkey in 1923, the Turkish military has perceived itself as the guardian of Kemalism, the official state ideology. The TAF still maintains an important degree of influence over Turkish politics and the decision-making process regarding issues related to Turkish national security, albeit decreased in the past decades, via the National Security Council.
The military has had a record of intervening in politics. Indeed, it assumed power for several periods in the latter half of the 20th century. It executed coups d'état in 1960, in 1971, and in 1980. In 1997, it maneuvered the removal of an Islamic-oriented prime minister, Necmettin Erbakan. The military continued to effect politics throughout the first two decades of the 21st century, publishing an e-memorandum in 2007, and attempting a coup in 2016.